The Oculi Mundi Glossary is here to help you identify any geographical, cartographical, or historical terms that you may be unfamiliar with.

Glossary | Oculi Mundi

The Glossary

The period from the late 15th to the 17th century when European explorers set off into the unknown to discover new seafaring routes across the globe. The Age of Discovery often resulted in the plundering and colonization of non-European regions, such as the Americas. Newly ‘discovered’ places were exploited for their raw materials, wealth, and commodities, including slaves. The Age of Discovery had a huge impact on early modern European cartography, with new maps constantly being produced to account for the influx of information.

Preview of a map of the world by Sebastian Münster and Hans Holbein

A classical cosmographical instrument, the armillary sphere is a physical model of the universe. The movement of the heavenly bodies is represented by interconnecting circular rings at their axis of rotation. Depending on when the model was made, the earth or the sun was symbolized by a sphere in the instrument’s centre. Often crafted from bronze, these tools were frequently illustrated in maps and atlases. 

Double-hemisphere projection world map which depicts the voyages of Sir Francis Drake.

A classical instrument modelling the universe. 

 are made up of a series of finely crafted metal disks and spinning dials. They could be used for a range of calculations including altitude and latitude. This multipurpose tool was used in many different settings such as surveying, astronomy, maritime voyages, and triangulation. 

 is the study of the effect of the positions and motions of celestial objects upon humans. Planetary movements were historically understood to influence a person’s health or behaviour, and even to determine their character. Astrologers were employed in Europe’s elite courts to produce these calculations. For example, Petrus Apianus’ 

could be used to plot the positions of the stars and planets to produce astrological readings.

The study of everything in the universe beyond Earth’s atmosphere, including to examine the positions and motions of celestial objects.

The term ‘atlas’ was coined by Gerard Mercator in 1595 to describe his book of maps. He claimed that he chose the word “to honour the Titan, Atlas, King of Mauritania, a learned philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer”. Atlases are typically a collection of printed maps. They chart specific regions, the stars, or the entire Earth.

Ortelius' world map on an oval projection from his atlas

A printing that occurs on both sides of a single leaf (see also 

Ptolemaic World by Hartmann Schedel, part of the Nuremberg Chronicle. There are 12 Windheads surrounding the Earth, and the map is supported in three corners by the solemn figures of Ham, Shem and Japhet from the Old Testament.

A print on one side of a single sheet of paper. The verso (other side) is left blank. Broadsides were often pasted on walls as posters or advertisements. When printed on both sides, a broadside becomes a 

Tramezzino's broadsheet print of his Western Hemisphere map

The practice of mapmaking. Cartography requires an understanding of mathematics, science, and the arts. Cartographers aimed to chart the expanding world in two dimensions, translating geographical information about regions of the globe into maps.

Mercator Projection of a world map from the Dutch Golden Age

A printed ornamental frame. Usually taking the form of a scroll, a cartouche was used to embellish the peripheries of a map. It often holds the map’s title, inscription, dedication, or artist’s hallmark. Cartouches can be richly decorated with items describing the contents of a particular map. Sometimes, cartouches were left blank to be filled in later with updated information or the name of a patron who purchased a map. For example, Antonio Florianus’ world map features an empty decorative cartouche.

Cartouche and vignette from left-hand corner of map

A geographical plotting of a region. A chart is a working document that is periodically updated by cartographers and mariners with new information. It is also a generic term for certain kinds of map, such as a 

A chronological compilation of knowledge, that is, one organised by time. Often, a chronology is a factual history of a specific country or series of events. It can also be history according to a particular religion. Examples in The Sunderland Collection are 

 as a zone on a map, climes persisted for hundreds of years in European cartography. First described by 

, the Earth was thought to have five climes: the Arctic and Antarctic, or North and South frigid zones; the North and South temperate zones; and one very hot zone between the two tropical zones. Only the temperate zones were thought to be habitable.

Ptolemaic Projection of a world map set against a blue sky, surrounded by clouds and 12 Windheads

 in book form, such as the Harisse Codex (also known as the Cadamosto Portolan) in The Sunderland Collection.

Preview of Cadamosto Portolan atlas, with stunning illustrations in reds and golds

Also known as a wind rose, the compass rose was a central feature of nearly all early navigational charts. It indicates direction so that the reader can orientate themselves when reading the chart. These tools could be very simple, with only a single pointer indicating north. They could also be far more complex, indicating the directions of North, South, East and West. Compass roses were often highly decorative. Some mapmakers had signature designs unique to themselves. They derive from the invention of the magnetic compass. Plácido Caloiro e Oliva and 

 charts include decorative compass roses.

A two-page spread from a portolan atlas with a compass rose on the top left. The map is very detailed and finely drawn by hand showing Italy and part of the Mediterranean Sea. Many rumblines are featured on the map. The names of cities and town are written in tiny letters perpendicular to the coastline. The compass rose is finely drawn with a red central dial.

A sheet of copper on which an image is engraved or etched in reverse of the printed image which results.

Preview of Frederick de Wit's terrestrial World Map. The map consists of a twin hemisphere world map, together with two polar projections.

Heart-shaped. Cordiform maps have their standard parallel at the North or South pole.

Preview of a cordiform or heart-shaped world map by Gemma Frisius and Peter Apianus

The world expressed as two halves, typically of the “Western” and “Eastern”, usually circles, but also heart-shaped.

An edition includes all the impressions published at the same time or as part of the same publishing event. First edition prints and maps are sometimes pre-dated by a proof edition. Editions of a map or print should be distinguished from 

of a map or print. There can be several states of from the same edition, and there can be several editions all with the same state.

Macrobius zonal world map, shown as an excerpt from the Commentary on the Dream of Scipio

The process of using a sharp tool to incise clean, tapered lines into a metal plate, traditionally made of copper. A range of line widths is possible depending on the size of the tool used, making delicate tonalities and shading possible. The incised lines hold the ink when the image is pressed.

 technique with a visual result similar to drawing. Etched lines are usually free: the artist draws with a sharp tool through a soft coating (usually wax-based) on the plate. The plate is then placed into an acid bath, where the acid eats away, or ​“bites,” the exposed metal of the incised lines leaving the areas that are coated with ground untouched. The artist can achieve a broad range of tone by controlling the time the plate spends in the acid-bath.

A model of the universe which placed the Earth at its centre. In the second century CE, 

 advocated for a geocentric model and the system predominated well into the 16th century. 

’s famous proposal of a heliocentric model of the universe – with the sun at the centre of the solar system – was considered by many at the time to be heretical or simply wrong. Astronomers such as 

 continued to use the geocentric system. 

A preview of Andreas Cellarius' star atlas depicting the location of the Earth encircled by the celestial circles.

One of the most influential cartographic works of all time, the 

 in c. 150 CE. The text includes an atlas and a treatise on cartography. It was translated into Latin in the13th century, and widely reissued and updated with new information and maps by cartographer such as Leinhart Holl in 1482 and 

 in 1513. Detailed information about Ptolemy and his works, including the 

A model or the earth or the heavens, in which a map is pasted on to a sphere. Globes turn on their axis mimicking the movement of the Earth or heavens. They were often made from plaster on a wood and paper frame, or from metal. The map pasted onto this sphere was usually painted. Globes can be used for navigation, for determining one's position relative to a place or time, and to make many other calculations. They come in a huge range of sizes, from pocket globes to table globes, to huge floor globes. The Sunderland Collection contains a beautiful pair of floor globes by Joan Blaeu.

 in a copperplate as a series of connected segments, such as 

 of c. 1620. The image is then printed on a single sheet, which can be cut out and pasted directly onto a sphere. Gores can be scaled larger or smaller, resulting in an increase or decrease in the size of the globe.

Preview of a globe gores by the influential cartographer, Jodocus Hondius.

A central, or sundial, projection, in which landmasses are drawn to scale in proportion to their distance from a pole.

Franz Ritter's sundial map or gnomoic projection, centred on the North Pole

A model of the universe which placed the sun at its centre, with the planets orbiting around it. While there is evidence that the Ancient Greeks knew about the heliocentric nature of the cosmos, a geocentric model prevailed in Europe until the seventeenth century. In Europe, the heliocentric model was first proposed by the sixteenth century astronomer 

 and was supported in the following century by 

A planisphere showing the heavens and the sun according to the Copernican system.

 or book. Illuminations can be decorative elements, images, or ornamental lettering. They are typically hand-painted in richly coloured pigments and sometimes gilded. In early atlases and printed books, some capital letters were still illuminated by hand, showing an interesting transition from 

Anything printed during the fifteenth century, the first century of printing with ​‘moveable type’. From the Latin, meaning ​‘from the cradle’. The plural is “incunabula”.

The most promiment method of engraving in Europe, from the Italian “intagliare”, meaning ​“to incise.” Acid or a pointed tool is used to incise the composition into a metal plate, usually made of copper. After the image has been drawn, the plate is covered with ink, and then wiped so that only the incised areas contain ink. It is then pressed onto paper. The different types of intaglio prints are: 

, aquatint and photogravure (made using acid to corrode the metal plate), 

, drypoint and mezzotint (made using a sharp tool). Often different techniques are used in combination.

A document that has been written by hand.

Manuscript page containing two maps: a T-O world map and a diagram of lunar eclipses. The world map is lightly colored and the lunar diargam is black and white. The page is hand-written and was taken from William de Conches.

A medieval map of the world. A mappa mundi is usually a 

 map from the pre-printing era. It is typically schematic and symbolic in nature rather than geographically accurate. A

 is a type of mappa mundi. Examples in The Sunderland Collection include the world maps by 

Black and white woodcut of the world in a modified mappa mundi form, from the Mer des Hystoires (Sea of Stories). The map is round. The top half shows Asia, with Paradise at the very top in the East. The lower left quadrant shows Europe, and the right lower quadrant shows Africa. Place names are show in small labels throughout the map.

The Middle Ages usually refers to the period of time in Europe between the fall of the Roman Empire (c. 500CE) to the beginning of the Renaissance (c. 1400CE).

 solving the ancient problem of how to map the spherical earth onto a flat sheet of paper. This projection treats the world as a cylinder, while preserving compass bearings as straight lines.

A diagrammatic representation of a body of water, typically including the coastline. Nautical charts usually indicate the depth of the water, potential hazards, and the topography of the coast. They are used by pilots and maritime navigators to plan voyages.

The name used to describe landmasses in the Western hemisphere and the Americas in the sixteenth century. The New World was ‘discovered’ by European ('Old World') voyagers during the 

An ancient Roman road format of map, showing an expanded view of the Roman empire and Italian peninsula.

Part of the Peutinger Table from Jansson's Historical Atlas

A powdery material used to form a paint. Made from minerals, metals, or plant sources.

The world expressed as two halves, seen from the Arctic and/or Antarctic, usually as circles, but also heart-shaped, or cone-shaped or even fan-shaped.

Preview of twin hemispherical polar projection world map created by cartographer Gerard de Jode.

 drawn on vellum that were designed to be viewed as though sailing. All portolan charts display 

. Coastal place names are written on the landside of the coastline, to avoid interfering with sailing courses. There is generally minimal detail within the interior of the landmasses. However, important cities and other features are illustrated, and islands are often shown in distinct colours.

The representation on a flat plane of any part of the surface of the Earth or celestial sphere: 

 (c100-170CE). Combining two classical concepts: “oikoumene”, or the “known world”, Eratosthenes’s (c240 BC) calculation that the circumference of the earth was 39,690 km; and Marinus of Tyre’s (c70-130AD) idea of a network of meridians and parallels on which to plot coordinates. This enabled the projection of the geographic coordinates of about 8,000 places.

Lines on a navigational chart that radiate out from particular points to indicate wind directions, lines of navigation or points from a 

 although their actual purpose remains unclear.

The practice of highlighting the first letter of a page, paragraph, or list by hand. Rubricated letters are typically decorative and ornamental. They are particularly spectacular in 

; however, the practice continued in early printed books.

An excerpt from an atlas with rubricated letters

All impressions of a book or print published at the same time or as part of the same publishing event. First edition prints and maps are sometimes pre-dated by a proof edition. Editions should be distinguished from 

 of a map or print. There can be several states from the same edition, and there can be several editions all featuring the same state of a map.

Preview of Ortelius' world map, the map is surrounded by illustrations of clouds and has text at the top which reads: Typus Orbis Terrarum.

One of the earliest attempts to diagram the roundness of the earth and the essential geography of the known world. The "T" of the T-O map may come from the Greek "tau," a form of the cross adopted by early Christians as a symbol of their faith. East is usually at the top in a T-O Map. The vertical line of the "T" represents the Mediterranean Sea and the horizontal line usually represents the Don River on the left (together with the Sea of Azov, Black Sea, Sea of Marmara and the Aegean Sea), and the Nile on the right.

The thin, specially treated and untanned skin of a calf or sheep. Also known as 'parchment'. Used for 

World map from portolan atlas, the Harisse Codex, with 12 Windheads surrounding the Earth.

The reverse side of a map. In an open book the recto is the right hand page and the verso is the left hand page; in the case of a broadside only the recto is printed and the verso is blank.

The verso - back - of a map image. The page is blank, but hints of the map on the recto - front - of the page can be seen through the paper.

A two-dimensional revolving paper scientific instrument, used to model the movement of the heavens and make calculations in time and space.

A personification of a wind, usually appearing outside a map and blowing inwards. Derived from the classical wind roses designed by 

. The wind roses had 12 directions: Boreas (N), Meses (NNE), Caecias (NE), Apeliotes (E), Eurus (SE), Orthonotus (SSE), Notus (S), Leuconotus (SSW), Lips (SW), Zephyrus (W), Iapyx (NW) and Thracias (NNW). The winds on maps are important because they influence navigation by sea, as well as the weather.

A form of woodcut similar to a copperplate engraving, where a woodblock is incised and used as the basis for a print. The lines are rigid, tapered at the ends, and vary in thickness and length to create tone and texture. Wood engravings are printed in relief: the ink is rolled onto the surface, so the incised lines remain white. Woodblocks are one of the earliest methods of printing, dating back to eighth century China. Multiple blocks can be cut for different colours to be printed.

Ptolemaic World Map printed from a woodcut by Lienhart Holl, set against a blue sky with clouds surrounding the maps. There are 10 Windheads around the Earth.

An illustration produced when the original printing plate was engraved on a block of wood. One of the oldest methods of printing, dating back to 8th-Century China.

Reisch's Windhead Map showing lands unknown to Ptolemy

Planets and stars forming constellations that represent animals or humans. The European zodiac is split into twelve star signs: Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces. The signs of the zodiac are believed to confer different characteristics on people born during their time, and thus form part of 

Glossary reference