Scientific Works from the Sunderland Collection
Introduction
Books of knowledge have been included in The Sunderland Collection to illustrate some of the science and beliefs that underpin both terrestrial and celestial cartography. They also link directly to other works in the Collection through reference or authorship.
Here, we present four books dating from the Scientific Revolution, an era of scientific advancement and discovery in Europe. It began with Nicolaus Copernicus’s ground-breaking work ‘De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium’ (1543), where he proposed his fundamental heliocentric theory - a solar system with the sun at the centre of the universe. The Revolution reached its pinnacle with Isaac Newton’s ‘Principia’ (1687), in which he formulated the universal laws of motion and gravity.
During the Scientific Revolution, theories that increasingly relied on empirical and mathematical methods intertwined with earlier, medieval texts that remained very influential. Scholars attempted to address or reconcile both, to describe natural phenomena and to measure patterns in the universe.
Woodcut from 'Das Ständebuch' (1586) by Hans Sachs with illustrations by Jost Amman. Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
In around 1455, Johannes Gutenberg revolutionised book production through the invention of movable type. Unlike the slow, error-prone manuscript process, the printing press offered a faster, more accurate means of reproducing texts and helped to standardise spelling, grammar, and terminology.
This technological leap enabled scholars across Europe to foster scientific communities, encouraging debate and collaboration. As printing became more available, books became cheaper and more accessible, extending scientific knowledge beyond elite circles.
Johannes de Sacrobosco’s 'De Sphaera Mundi' (1491)
Johannes de Sacrobosco (1584). Source: Wellcome Collection.
Johannes de Sacrobosco (c.1195–c.1256)
Sacrobosco was a cosmographer and monk who lived and worked in Paris. He taught astronomy at the University of Paris and his writings became fundamental parts of the curriculum for centuries.
He is believed to have been born in northern England and may have studied at Oxford University. He is best remembered for two major scientific contributions: his introduction of the Hindu-Arabic numerical system, which became the standard text on arithmetic; and his criticism of the Julian calendar, which was in use before the Gregorian calendar we are familiar with today.
Remarkably, Sacrobosco anticipated reforms similar to those of the Gregorian calendar more than 300 years before their adoption.
In around 1230, Sacrobosco composed his most influential work, 'De Sphaera Mundi'. Written in simple Latin, it was designed as an introductory textbook for university students and distilled complex Ptolemaic astronomy into a concise and accessible format. With the advent of the printing press, its reach expanded dramatically: between 1472 and 1673, more than 200 editions were published, ensuring its status as the standard astronomical textbook across Europe for nearly four centuries.
The text promoted the geocentric model of the cosmos. Drawing heavily on Claudius Ptolemy’s 'Almagest', Sacrobosco described the Earth as immobile at the centre of the universe, surrounded by concentric celestial spheres.
Although he presented no new theories, his effective teaching approach bridged the gap between advanced scientific treatises and introductory learning, shaping Medieval and Renaissance conceptions of the universe until they were displaced by Copernican models in the seventeenth century.
The Sphere of the World
Central to 'De Sphaera Mundi' is Sacrobosco’s description of the heavens as a “sphere of the world”: a solid body containing the planets and constellations. Following the theories of the ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician Theodosius of Bithynia (first century BCE), Sacrobosco divided the cosmos into nine spheres: The 'primum mobile', or prime mover; the firmament of fixed stars; Saturn; Jupiter; Mars; The Sun; Venus; Mercury; and the Moon.
This model reflects the traditional Ptolemaic system in which transparent spheres move in harmonious order. The primum mobile - the outermost sphere - drives the rotation of the heavens, while the lower spheres move along their own axes.
Sacrobosco also distinguished between the 'right sphere' which was visible only at the equator, and the 'oblique sphere', where the celestial circles appear to be tilted. He explained that the heavens revolve east to west, while the lower spheres move in the opposite direction while inclined at 23°. This theory of the ecliptic was central to Medieval cosmology.
The Earth
Sacrobosco opened his treatise by proclaiming that the Earth is a sphere. He argued that stars rise earlier in the east than the west; that different constellations become visible when traveling north or south; and that sailors see farther from higher masts - all acting as evidence for a curved Earth. He also likened the globe to a droplet of water, naturally spherical, and divided it into climatic zones.
These zones formed a key part of Medieval natural philosophy. The theory was that the cosmos consisted of four mutable elements: earth, water, air, and fire, beneath the immutable ethereal realm of the celestial spheres. The Earth, as the heaviest element, rested motionless at the centre while the heavens revolve eternally around it.
Thus, Sacrobosco offered students not only a guide to astronomy but also a foundation for understanding the ordered Medieval universe.
Johannes Werner’s 'Geographia' (1514)
Johannes Werner. Public domain. Matthead via Wikimedia Commons
Johannes Werner (1468-1522)
Werner was a German mathematician, parish priest, and instrument maker. He studied at the prominent University of Ingolstadt (founded 1472) and later became a priest in the Christian faith.
From 1497 until his death in 1522, Werner held various positions in the churches of Nuremberg, which was a centre for learning, mathematical theory, and printing. He was able to devote considerable time to scientific writing, and also produced instruments including astrolabes, clocks, and sundials.
Werner published his new translation of Claudius Ptolemy’s ‘Geographia' in 1514, together with a commentary and a detailed treatise on map projections.
Much of Werner’s writing was inspired by the work of German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Regiomontanus. A copy of Regiomontanus' seminal work, 'Epitome of the Almagest' (1496) is also in The Sunderland Collection. This book contains Ptolemy's highly influential theories on astronomy.
Lunar Distance Method
Werner outlined a method for calculating longitude using a sailor’s cross staff - an early navigational instrument - to measure the position of the Moon in accordance with the stars. Petrus Apianus would pick up and popularise this method in his 'Cosmographia' (1524), discussed below.
Improving navigation at sea was critical to trade and sailing of all forms. However, the lunar distance method had several fundamental drawbacks. Firstly, it was necessary to gather an accurate table of the Moon’s relative position for a particular location, taking account of local time. This was challenging to carry out on ships that constantly moved. Furthermore, as the Moon is being pulled in several directions within the larger gravitational system, it was very difficult to produce accurate astronomic tables. Werner was aware of thiese issues and noted them at the time.
Werner Projection
In his 'Geographia', Werner advocated a cordiform or heart-shaped projection. This projection creates a map that is accurate at its centre, but increasinbly distorted around the edges. The Earth is projected from the centre of the North Pole and spreads out to the equator. The east-west parallels are straight, and the north-south lines are curved, getting further away from each other at the equator and converging towards the South Pole.
This projection was originally designed by Johannes Stabius at the turn of the sixteenth century. However, Werner’s promotion of the cordiform in his book meant that it is often associated with him and even sometimes referred to as the ‘Werner Projection’. Werner was highly influential amongst his peers: Gerard Mercator, Oronce Fine, and Abraham Ortelius are known to have used the projection in their work. Today, the cordiform projection is still admired for its novelty and attractiveness.
Werner's 'Geographipa' remains a key, influential example of the interplay among scholarship, craftsmanship, science, and Medieval theory.
Petrus Apianus’ 'Cosmographia' (1524)
Sixteenth-century engraved portrait of Apianus by Theodor de Bry. Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Petrus Apianus (1495-1552)
Apianus was a German mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer. After studying in Leipzig and Vienna, he established himself as one of the leading scientific minds of his time. In 1527, he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at the University of Ingolstadt - a position that cemented his fine reputation as a scholar and a publisher.
Apianus’ seminal work ‘Cosmographia’ impressed Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V so much so that he was granted an Imperial printing monopoly in both 1532 and 1534. A year later in 1535, Charles V permitted him to also include a royal coat of arms on his publications to show the endorsement of one of the most powerful rulers in Europe.
Cosmology
First published in 1524, the ‘Cosmographia’ sought to bring together celestial and terrestrial knowledge in a single, accessible text. It was conceived as a comprehensive guide to cosmography: the study of the Earth and the ‘heavens’ through measurement, mapping, and description. One of the book's most striking illustrations depicts the Earth positioned beneath a star-filled celestial sphere - visually connecting the Earth and the heavens in the cosmos.
Apianus also included a Ptolemaic world map in his work, encircled by zodiacal figures. Thus, he situated earthly geography within a larger cosmological framework.
Instruments
The 'Cosmographia' was a very popular practical manual that contained innovative adjustable moving paper instruments - known as volvelles. These translate astronomical principles into hands-on tools. Three full-size volvelles feature in the work, each modelled after more sophisticated brass devices such as astrolabes. Readers could use them to calculate time, latitude, or the Sun’s position relative to the horizon.
Apianus’ student Gemma Frisius, a renowned instrument maker, revised the textbook in 1529 and adding more volvelles, including one illustrating the phases of the Moon. He also created a beauitful version of Apianus' map, a copy of which is in the Sunderland Collection.
The books by Apianus and Frisius both demonstrated cosmographical concepts and served as advertisements for the finely crafted instruments available from Frisius’ own workshop.
Readers were invited to cut, assemble, and manipulate the pages themselves - an early example of an interactive scientific publication.
The "discovery" of the Americas had a great influence on Apianus and his peers, as it opened up a vast, unknown part of the world that had previously only been hinted at in theory or travellers' accounts.
Drawing on Martin Waldseemüller’s landmark world map of 1507 and his influential edition of ‘Geographia’ (1513), Apianus included depictions of the recently encountered Americas his own work. In 1520 he would release a reduced-size reissue of Waldseemüller’s map.
Not all of the information presented in his 'Cosmographia' was accurate. Apianus relied heavily on outdated Medieval authorities and repeated long-standing myths, such as the existence of ‘monstrous’ races in Asia. Much of his source material on the New World was taken from the account of Amerigo Vespucci’s first four voyages that had been published as a pamphlet between 1505-06. By drawing on these accounts, the ‘Cosmographia’ both fuelled European curiosity of Indigenous people and helped establish reductive stereotypes of non-European cultures.
Legacy
The ‘Cosmographia’ became one of the successful works of popular scient in the sixteenth century. It was printed in more than 45 editions and 14 languages. Its combination of theory, practical instruments, and maps ensured its widespread appeal.
While it transmitted outdated notions alongside genuine innovation, the ‘Cosmographia’ shaped how generations of readers understood their place in the universe and their relation to the newly expanding world.
It also paved the way for Apianus' success as a scientist, and for his greatest work - the 'Astronomicum Caesareum' or 'Astronomy of the Kings' (1540). A copy of this stunning work can be found in the Sunderland Collection in beautiful original hand colour.
Isaac Habrecht & Johann Sturm’s 'Planiglobium Coeleste ac Terrestre' (1666)
Isaac Habrecht (1608). Public Domain, via Bibliothèque nationale et universitaire de Strasbourg
Isaac Habrecht (1589- c.1633)
Habrecht began his career as a Doctor of Medicine. He studied mathematics and astronomy, eventually taking on the role of Professor at the University of Strasbourg. In 1625, he constructed a celestial globe that influenced Johannes Kepler’s son-in-law, Jacob Bartsch - who in turn went on to coin the term ‘planisphere’.
Habrecht came from a long family transition of Swiss instrument and clock makers. His family had resided in Strasbourg for decades, and his father was known for having constructed the astronomical clock inside of Strasbourg Cathedral (completed 1574).
Johann Sturm by Wolfgang Philipp Kilian (1654-1732) - Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Johann Christoph Sturm (c. 1630-1703)
Sturm was Habrecht’s dedicated student. He had a very successful career in his own right, establishing the first scientific academy in Germany in 1672, the Collegium Curiosum sive Experimentale. He also taught an experimental physics course to university students.
The Planiglobium Coeleste
Habrecht's book was a key reference text containing a series of diagrams including two planispheres dating back to 1628. One of the sources for his work was Petrus Plancius, whose elegant world map (1594) can be found in the Sunderland Collection. In 1621, Habrecht produced a celestial globe reflecting Plancius’ knowledge and including six constellations attributed to him.
In 1662, Sturm began embellishing and enhancing Habrecht’s text, enlarging on his work with both additional text and new plates. It was published in 1666. This edition included the famous celestial planispheres based on polar stereographic projections, which depict the constellations of the northern and southern skies.
Sturm also included two world maps using polar projections and supplemented them with 10 folding engravings. The planispheres employ a concave perspective, in which the disc appears to sink back into the page. The Earth is then divided into two halves of a perfect sphere, and the equator serves as the diameter of their diagram.
The example in the Sunderland Collection is rare because it contains all of the planispheres and other illustrations: it is a complete first edition of Sturm's expanded work. The book also links earlier objects from the Collection, such as the Plancius world map, with the other books of science.
Flemish painter and engraver Jacob von der Heyden (1573-1645) was the artist responsible for producing the exquisite engravings in Sturm's book.
A parallel edition of the 'Planiglobium' was also published in 1666, containing only the prints. It is likely that these images were intended to be removed from their binding and arranged together to form a unique instrument. The volvelles measure 27 centimetres in diameter and include a movable point that allows the reader to perform their own calculations.
Constellations
The stars in Sturm's diagrammes are divided into six orders of magnitude, with nebulae distinguished by a dotted circle. In both of the planispheres, the boundaries of the Milky Way are carefully described. The classical constellations recorded by Ptolemy in the 'Almagest' are included, such as Coma Berenices, Jordan, Tygris fluvi, and Apes.
The Rhombus constellation in the southern sky seems to be a unique addition by Habrecht. It may have been inspired by the writings of Amerigo Vespucci during his travels toward the pole: the constellation is positioned between those viewed by Dutch explorers in 1598, namely Hydrus and Dorado.
Harbrecht’s Rhombus proved influential, reappearing in Carolus Allard’s planisphere of 1706 under the name 'Quadratum', and in a 1730 star chart by Corbinianus Thomas. In 1879, the constellation was renamed 'Reticulum', and in 1922 was officially included among the 88 recognised constellations by the International Astronomical Union.
Illustrations from Hartman Schedel's Nuremberg Chronicle (1493)
Select References
Brotton, Jerry. A History of the World in Twelve Maps. Penguin, 2012.
Burns, William E. The Scientific Revolution in Global Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Cohen, H. Floris. The Rise of Modern Science Explained: A Comparative History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Pedersen, Olaf. 1985. “In Quest of Sacrobosco.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 16 (3): 175–221.
Posch, Michael. “Appendix C: The Stabius-Werner Map Projection.” CCE Status Report 2011, 2011.
Snyder, John P. Map Projections: A Working Manual. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1395. Washington DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1987.
Warner, Deborah Jean. The Sky Explored: Celestial Cartography, 1500-1800, 104–105, 2c.
Whipple Library, Cambridge University. “Featured Items: Apianus.” Accessed August 28, 2025.
Digital University Library Blog. “Item of the Month: Peter Apian’s Cosmographia” March 7, 2024.
Museum of the History of Science, Oxford. “Book.Page Two.” Accessed August 28, 2025.
Peter Harrington. “Scientific Renaissance.” Accessed August 28, 2025.
