Cao’s map was the first Chinese map to employ the notation of latitude and longitude, a characteristic of European cartography, signalling a departure from the Sino-Jesuit maps of previous decades. These elements appear to have been adapted from Matteo Ricci's world map of 1602. Cao deviated from traditional Chinese cartography in portraying foreign countries as continents, rather than islands arranged around the periphery, and also emulated Ricci’s depiction of North and South America.

On the other hand, Cao's central depiction of the Middle Kingdom (China), surrounded by Europe, Africa, and America, reflects a typical Chinese perspective and a continuation of the Hua-Yi distinction common in traditional Chinese cartography. The map also retains the Chinese cartographic convention of indicating the administrative subdivisions into two capitals and thirteen provinces. The administrative levels include the 'fu' (prefectures), 'zhou' (departments), 'xian' (counties), 'wei' (military guards), and 'tusi' (chieftains) are each intricately engraved and rendered with a distinct symbol. Mountains and The Great Wall are depicted in elevation; rivers, lakes, and oceans are shown with corrugation; and the Yellow River is prominently shown with its source in the shape of a gourd.

The accompanying text reflects the map's unprecedented and comprehensive perspective of the world. Along the upper border is a note detailing the countries of the world, entitled ‘Illustration of the Encyclopaedia of All Nations’. On the left, there is a list of thirty-three foreign countries located in Europe, the Mediterranean, Africa, North and South America, and Antarctica. Information about local products, customs, and the distances between these countries and Beijing is also featured. To the right is a list of twenty-nine strategic passes located in the ‘Jiubian’ (‘Nine Frontiers’), along with distances to Beijing. The panel of text along the lower edge describes the two capitals and thirteen provinces of China, including their names, population, distances, and the production of goods such as rice, wheat, silk, cotton, linen, money, horse fodder, salt taxes. All of this information is taken from the ‘Daming Yitongzhi’ (‘General Gazeteer of the Ming Dynasty’).

Cao’s cartographic style exhibits a distinct lineage from Yu Shi's 1555 ‘Gujin xingsheng zhi tu’ (‘Map of advantageous terrain, past and present’) and from Liang Chou’s 1593  ‘Qiankun wanguo quantu gujin renwu shiji’ (‘A comprehensive map [delineating] heaven and earth and the myriad countries [of the world] and modern human affairs’), which shows early signs of incorporating European cartographic knowledge. In comparison, this map shows a markedly better understanding of Western cartography, with its thirty-six meridian lines and latitudes demarcated along the left and right margins at ten-degree intervals. The contours of Europe, the Mediterranean, and southwestern Africa are relatively accurate, and South and North America are shown in the lower right and upper right corners respectively.

This map titled 'Complete Map of All Under Heaven, the Nine Frontiers, Astral Allocations, Human Traces, and Route Itineraries' was created in 1644 at a pivotal point in Chinese history during downfall of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE) and the ascension of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 CE). The transition of power in China coincided with a remarkable development in printing and cartography, which was thus influenced by the Jesuits.

Two distinct cartographic traditions are fused in this map. It is the first Chinese map to use the European graticule, while also incorporating traditional Chinese cartographic information such as the various administrative levels, each given their own unique symbol. One of only three surviving copies of this cartographic hybrid, the map is also remarkable because it was printed by a private publishing house for sale to the wider public.

This extraordinary map was printed in 1644 by Cao Junyi, a publisher working in Nanjing, China. While many Chinese cartographic conventions dating back to the Song and Yuan Dynasties, Cao Junyi also introduced European influences. This period was marked by intensive mapping activities primarily spearheaded by Jesuit (Catholic) missionaries in late Ming China, who collaborated closely with local scholars. This intercultural endeavour produced significant works such as the Kunyu Wanguo Quantu 坤輿萬國全圖 [Map of the Myriad Countries of the World], involving Matteo Ricci, and the Wanguo Quantu萬國全圖 [Complete Map of All Countries], with Giulio Aleni’s participation. Over time, these mapping practices permeated various social strata, influencing artisans, merchants, and other non-elite groups involved in commercial and cultural activities (Zheng, 2025).

Cao Junyi’s map also bears witness to an important historical moment. In the same year the map was published in 1644, the Manchus invaded China from the north, taking Beijing that year. The Ming dynasty held out in Nanjing, their second capital, before succumbing a year later in 1645. In this brief interim period, Emperor Chongzhen, battling to survive and prop up his dynasty, required a map showing not only the geography of the former Ming dynasty dominions but also China's relationship with the rest of the world.

This map is one of the only three known examples of this beautiful woodblock map, created at the cusp of transition between the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The other two known copies are in the National Archive in Beijing and the British Library in London.

The Last Ming Dynasty World Map